Bain’s research suggests eliminating lecturing is unnecessary, since seven “unifying” principles impact learning—including courses that involve lecturing. The first unifying principle suggests fostering a “natural critical learning environment” (99). This environment is “natural” because students work with questions that naturally spark curiosity. Instructional methods range from discussions and lectures to roleplaying and analysis of case studies:

But the methods matter far less than do the challenge and permission for students to tackle authentic and intriguing questions and tasks, to make decisions, to defend their choices, to come up short, to receive feedback on their efforts, and to try again (100).

Thus, guidance is key to a natural critical learning environment, as is the second principle—work that invites students to participate in higher thinking (i.e., analyzing, comparing, and evaluating) rather than absorbing and regurgitating information. Teachers might ask students to share questions in writing. They turn lectures into opportunities for clarifying challenging topics, while encouraging active learning and providing opportunities to exercise skills.

Effective educators use the third principle—provocative questions and claims—to generate student interest and invite them to consider issues from alternative perspectives. They often use the Socratic method (asking and answering questions) to challenge students’ mental models.