By 1910, Europe had hardened into two blocs engaged in a relentless struggle for supremacy, and Kissinger finds Germany and Russia primarily responsible. Having so long been a battleground in Europe’s wars, Germany was determined to make itself secure but could devise no purpose beyond maximizing its own power. The Kaiser declared a policy of, the text says, “Weltpolitik, or global policy, without ever defining that term or its relationship to the German national interest” (171). Its rise could only frighten other states into forming countervailing coalitions, as Germany espoused no clear sense of its own limits. Russia was similarly reluctant to accept limits, particularly in Asia, where it had been expanding for centuries with little regard for the balance of power. Furthermore, the tsar lived the life of a traditional aristocrat, channeling meetings through the royal court and maintaining familial ties. Since he was also the autocrat, this meant that government was frequently paralyzed. Its tendency to equate power with territory left it with an empire far beyond what its comparatively meager infrastructure could support.

Britain remained a mighty empire, but its early lead in industrialization was fast losing ground to Germany and was engaged in a host of colonial disputes.