Chinese history is replete with the rise and fall of powerful dynasties, as well as periods of chaos as the nation struggled to reunite. As the 14th-century classic Chinese novel Three Kingdoms observes, “The empire, long divided, must unite; long united, must divide” (Guanzhong, Luo. Three Kingdoms. Translated by Moss Roberts. California University Press, 2020). This cyclical view of history was integral to China’s understanding of its own history. Times of plenty would inevitably give way to times of chaos, violence, and revolution, only to have the nation emerge anew.

The 19th century was just such a period of chaos: collisions with industrialized colonial European powers, internal division, political intrigue, and an ongoing struggle to reform antiquated answers to Chinese problems. Even today, this period is known as the “Century of Humiliation.” In “The Diary of a Madman,” the tension between prosperity and hardship is reflected through several references to the nearby Wolf Cub Village, which is suffering from famine. Though the “madman’s” town is seemingly unaffected by food shortages, the mention of a struggling village in such close proximity creates the impression that communities are always on the precipice of disaster.

By the early 20th century, China was exhausted, depleted, and in political turmoil.