Beyond Freedom and Dignity assumes a determinist philosophical perspective. Although determinism—or causal determinism—has been demonstrated in ancient thinking, the concept was formalized in the 1700s. Determinism holds that every occurrence is caused by the combined influence of the environment, including the laws of nature and antecedent phenomena. By its definition, determinism completely voids the concept of free will, which is the idea that humans can act spontaneously and autonomously. (Hoefer, Carl. “Causal Determinism.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2023.)

The scientific community has not yet reached a consensus as to whether the known universe is deterministic. However, numerous scientists from various branches of science have publicly supported the concept. Some of the most prominent determinists include Albert Einstein, Max Planck, Sigmund Freud, Friedrich Nietzsche, Stephen Hawking, Neil DeGrasse Tyson, Brian Greene, and Robert Sapolsky. Sapolsky is one of the most prominent supporters of determinism as it relates to human behavior. He authored Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will (2023), in which he uses an interdisciplinary and holistic approach to argue in favor of determinism and free will.

Sapolsky’s views are similar to Skinner’s; he believes that free will (or

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