Takaki introduces Part 3 with a discussion of “the explosive formation” of the American industrial economy between 1815 and 1860 (209). Although sectors like manufacturing expanded, the market for commercial goods was limited, leading to “cycles of economic instability, massive unemployment, and production gluts” (209). The Western frontier also had reached its limit by the late 19th century, with land no longer available for the taking. Capitalists started to look oversees for new markets and conquests.

In 1890 Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan published The Influence of Sea Power upon History, advocating for the United States to invest more in the navy to expand its international commerce. Mahan viewed the appropriation of Native American lands as a model for colonization, particularly in the Far East, and he promoted aggressive military strategies of imperialism. As Takaki writes, Mahan’s sphere of influence was great, for he “was the chief architect of the 1898 war against Spain,” annexed the Philippines, and “set the United States on a collision course with Japan” (212). Takaki thus describes the 1890s as an important period of transition for the United States, marking its foray into international affairs of lasting consequence.